TN 


UNIVERSITY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA 


MACHINERY  AND  ITS  BENEFITS 

TO  LABOR  IN  THE  CRUDE  IRON 

AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES 


UC-NRLF 


BY 

CHARLES  REITELL 


A  THESIS 

PRESENTED   TO  THE  FACULTY   OF   THE   GRADUATE 
IN   PARTIAL  FULFILLMENT   OF   THE  REQUIREMEN 
FOR  THE  DEGREE  OF  DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY 


LO 


GEORGE  BANTA  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

MENASHA  WISCONSIN 

1917 


EXCHANGE 


UNIVERSITY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA 


MACHINERY  AND  ITS  BENEFITS 

TO  LABOR  IN  THE  CRUDE  IRON 

AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES 


BY 
CHARLES  REITELL 


A  THESIS 

PRESENTED  TO  THE  FACULTY  OF  THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL 

IN  PARTIAL  FULFILLMENT  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS 

FOR  THE  DEGREE  OF  DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY 


®hs  (Enllf  giair  Crests 

GEORGE  BANTA  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

MENASHA  WISCONSIN 

1917 


NOTE 

This  Thesis  is  reprinted  from 

The  Iron  Age 

who  hold  complete  copyrights  including 
photographs  and  charts 

C.  R. 


CONTENTS 

The  Blast  Furnace 8 

The  Open  Hearth 22 

Machinery  and  Man 34 


OQI7Q3 


MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES 


MACHINERY  AND  ITS  BENEFITS  TO  LABOR  IN  THE  CRUDE 
IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES 

Civilization  may  well  be  measured  by  the  progress  made  in  mechanical 
processes.  From  the  simple  and  crude  tools  of  earlier  ages  to  the  colos- 
sal machines  and  complex  implements  of  today  there  is  observed  an 
ascending  series  of  greater  mechanical  production  which  registers  itself 
in  a  greater  number  of  useful  things  which  go  to  satisfy  our  ever 
increasing  wants. 

Coupled  with  and  as  a  part  of  this  long  range  of  changes  in  machine 
processes  are  seen  changes  in  the  type  and  kind  of  human  effort  required 
to  operate  the  new  machinery.  The  man  with  the  flail  is  replaced  by 
the  man  of  the  threshing  machine.  The  green-groomed  cabby  and  the 
hostler  give  way  to  the  trim  chauffeur  and  the  auto  machinist.  The 
dull  and  stupid  driver  of  the  horse-car  has  long  since  found  the  electric 
motorman  his  replacer.  Even  the  strong  and  robust  Slav,  with  pick 
and  shovel  witnesses  at  the  ditch  the  mechanical  digger  which  by  the 
guidance  of  the  skillful  engineer  constructs  more  trench  in  a  day  than 
fifty  laborers  could  accomplish  in  a  week. 

Everywhere,  on  all  sides,  we  see  this  advent  of  new  machinery;  and 
everywhere,  on  all  sides,  we  see  this  machinery  making  different  demands 
upon  labor  effort. 

What,  then,  have  been  the  effects  of  this  industrial  evolution  upon 
man?  Does  the  newer  kind  of  work  call  for  a  higher  or  a  lower  type  of 
employee  as  measured  by  physical  and  mental  requirements?  For 
instance,  does  that  gigantic  charging  machine,  which  carries  tons  of 
iron  and  scrap  into  the  open  hearth  furnace  demand  higher  or  lower 
standards  of  its  operator  than  were  required  of  the  men  who  put  in 
the  iron  by  hand? 

The  effects  of  this  growth  of  machinery  upon  man  have  been  both 
commended  and  denounced,  approved  and  condemned,  regretted  and 
indorsed.  On  one  side  we  find  marked  enmity  to  the  machine.  As 
William  Morris  writes:  "Machinery  has  made  of  man  a  mere  auto- 
maton— a  thing  without  soul  and  without  spirit — an  insignificant  cog 
in  a  mammoth  wheel."  The  poet  is  not  alone  in  his  condemnation  of 
machinery.  Herbert  Spencer  takes  a  similar  attitude. 

"Clearly  these  adjustments  brought  in  on  account  of  mechanical 
inventions  make  the  motions  of  the  workman  himself  relatively  auto- 
matic. At  the  same  time  the  monotonous  attention  required,  taxing 


6  MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES 

special  parts  of  the  nervous  system  and  leaving  others  inactive,  entails 
positive  as  well  as  negative  injury.  And  while  the  mental  nature 
becomes  deformed,  the  physical  nature,  too,  undergoes  degradations, 
caused  by  breathing  vitiated  air  at  a  temperature  now  in  excess,  now  in 
defect,  and  by  standing  for  many  hours  in  a  way  which  unduly  taxes 
the  muscular  system."1 

In  contrast,  machinery  has  been  just  as  ardently  praised  and  appre- 
ciated. Possibly  one  of  the  best  positions  on  this  side  is  stated  by  Dr. 
Carrol  D.  Wright:  "Machinery  necessitates  not  only  the  greatest  care 
in  preservation,  but  also  in  operation;  so  a  man  who  is  intelligent  enough 
to  run  one  machine  is  usually  intelligent  enough  to  learn  quickly  how 
to  operate  another  in  some  other  industry.  Unskilled  and  ignorant 
labor  cannot  make  such  sudden  turns.  .  .  .  The  man  who  makes  the 
small  parts  or  the  small  articles,  and  is  thus  subjected  to  what  is  called 
the  'terrible  monotony  of  machine  occupation,'  is  not  the  man  who  is 
capable  of  making  whole  things,  but  is  a  man  who  has  been  lifted  out 
of  some  more  monotonous  calling,  and  by  machinery  promoted  to  labour 
which  calls  for  the  exercise  of  some  intellect.  The  use  of  machinery 
compels  sobriety  on  the  part  of  the  operative;  there  has  been  no  more 
powerful  or  effective  temperance  worker  than  the  machine.  The  life 
and  limb  of  a  man  with  a  muddled  brain  are  in  danger  in  the  presence 
of  machinery,  while  the  damage  done  to  the  works  by  habitual  drunkards 
undertaking  to  manage  them  of  necessity  compels  the  employer  to 
engage  men  who  come  to  their  employment  with  clear  heads.  Machin- 
ery does  not  degrade  labor  but  elevates  it.  "2  An  appreciative  attitude 
is  also  maintained  by  one  who  has  observed  the  problem  from  a  practical 
side — Mr.  Harry  H.  Campbell,  former  General  Manager  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania Steel  Company,  and  at  present  a  scientific  writer  on  iron  and 
steel. 

Quoting  Mr.  Campbell:  "While  machinery  may  decrease  the  num- 
ber of  men,  it  demands  a  higher  grade  of  workman,  so  that  the  man  who 
operates  a  machine  will  get  a  higher  wage  than  the  workman  who  carried 
on  the  operation  by  hand."3 

Thus  we  have  reiterated  time  and  again  these  different  and  antago- 
nistic views  regarding  the  effects  of  machinery  upon  the  operatives. 

1  "Principles  of  Sociology,"  by  Herbert  Spencer.    Vol.  IV.  p.  253. 

2  "Outline  of  Practical  Sociology,"  by  Carrol  D.  Wright,    p.  256.  Longmans, 
Green  and  Company. 

3  "The  Manufacture  and  Properties  of  Iron  and  Steel"— Campbell,  pp.  618-619. 
The  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal. 


MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES  7 

Where  one  sees  the  development  of  inventions  as  "  extremely  detrimental 
to  the  worker,"  another  views  the  same  situation  as  "elevating  labor." 
But  wherever  such  views  are  expressed  we  find  them  appraisals  or  mere 
opinions,  a  collection  of  attitudes  rather  than  a  collection  of  data. 
In  other  words,  actual  facts  are  lacking. 

As  a  step  toward  finding  what  the  actual  effect  of  machines  upon 
men  has  been,  this  study  covers  the  conditions  and  changes  found  in 
the  crude  iron  and  steel  industries.  Two  industries,  the  blast  furnace 
and  open  hearth  have  been  considered.  The  first  of  these  produces 
all  the  pig  iron  and  the  latter  74%  of  the  steel  of  the  United  States.1 
The  investigation  covers  25  blast  furnaces  and  38  open  hearth  fur- 
naces located  in  eastern  Pennsylvania  and  in  Maryland. 

In  carrying  out  the  study  careful  observation  was  made  of  each 
mechanical  invention  introduced  from  time  to  time,  and  the  correspond- 
ing changes  in  labor  such  inventions  demanded.  Four  definite  factors 
were  considered  throughout  the  investigation: 

First.       The  nature  of  the  mechanical  processes  introduced. 

Second.  The  number  of  employees  added  or  displaced  by  the  new 
invention. 

Third.     The  machine  as  regards  the  problem  of  safety. 

Fourth.  The  higher  or  lower  type  of  worker  demanded  as  measured 
by  (a)  physical  requirements,  (b)  mental  control  and 
intellectual  skill,  (c)  incomes  received. 

The  results  found  portray  (1)  that  in  both  industries  mechanical 
methods  have  come  in  to  an  almost  amazing  extent;  (2)  that  they  call 
for  fewer  workers;  (3)  that  where  modern  machinery  has  been  put  in 
the  work  has  proven 'safer  to  the  employees;  (4)  that  to  a  great  extent 
unskilled  labor  has  been  displaced,  and  that  a  call  for  higher  types  of 
workers  has  been  made. 

Let  us  now  trace  the  processes  of  these  two  industries,  giving  especial 
attention  to  those  positions  and  jobs  where  mechanical  changes  have 
been  made.  The  blast  furnace  and  open  hearth  operations  will  be 
considered  in  turn.  To  familiarize  the  reader  with  the  details  of  making 
pig  iron  and  crude  steel  a  general  description  of  the  blast  furnace  and 
open  hearth  is  given. 

1  In  1915,  29,916,000  tons  of  pig  iron  were  made  in  blast  furnaces.  During  this 
same  year  23,679,000  tons  of  steel  were  made  in  open  hearths.  The  pig  represents 
total  production  and  the  steel  74%  of  total  production.  U.  S.  Kept.  Mineral  Resources 
of  U.  S.,  1915,  pp.  327  and  335. 


8  MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES 

THE  BLAST  FURNACE  (CRUDE  IRON) 

The  purpose  of  a  blast  furnace  is  to  make  crude  iron  (i.e.  pig  iron) 
from  iron-ore.  The  modern  blast  furnace  is  an  egg  shaped  chamber 
one  hundred  feet  high  and  twenty-five  feet  wide,  with  the  broadest 
part  of  the  furnace  toward  the  ground.  See  photograph  I  at  (x)  and 
II  at  (a).  This  massive  chamber  is  lined  with  fire-brick  and  is  usually 
covered  on  the  outside  with  plates  of  steel  bound  by  heavy  iron  hoops. 
Piercing  the  furnace  a  few  feet  from  the  bottom  are  from  eight  to  twenty 
small  holes  one  to  one  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter,  called  tuyeres. 
It  is  through  these  tuyeres  that  strong  blasts  of  heated  air  are  blown 
so  as  to  feed  the  fire  that  melts  the  material  that  stocks  the  furnace 
clear  to  the  top.  From  these  air  blasts  we  get  the  name  "  blast  furnace. " 
At  the  top  of  the  furnace  there  is  a  round  trap  door  of  iron  called  "  the 
bell,"  through  which  the  material  is  introduced  which  is  to  be  burned 
and  melted.  Such  material  (i.e.  stock)  consists  of  iron-ore,  coke  and 
limestone. 

The  iron-ore  is  a  combination  of  iron  and  oxygen,  so  that  the  chemical 
reaction  needed  is  to  free  oxygen  from  the  ore,  thus  leaving  iron.  Coke 
does  this.  But  more  than  this  is  necessary.  The  iron  must  be  melted 
and  the  earthy  parts  of  the  iron-ore  and  coke  must  be  separated  from 
the  iron.  This  need  is  supplied  by  the  limestone  which  unites  these 
impurities  and  is  tapped  off  in  a  red-hot  liquid  state  about  ten  feet  from 
the  bottom  of  the  furnace.  This  material  is  called  slag.  Molten  slag 
is  much  lighter  than  the  molten  iron,  and  therefore  floats  on  the  top 
of  the  liquid  mass,  which  comprises  about  a  tenth  of  the  total  height 
of  the  furnace. 

The  blast  of  air  when  entering  the  tuyeres  is  already  red-hot.  The 
high  temperature  is  obtained  by  the  air  passing  through  stack-like 
cylindrical  "ovens,"  or  "stoves,"  which  are  seventy  to  a  hundred  feet 
high  and  twenty  feet  in  diameter.  The  inside  of  these  ovens  contains 
porous  bricks  so  laid  that  open  spaces  exist  between  them.  The  gas 
from  the  top  of  the  blast  furnace  is  for  a  tune  channeled  into  these 
stoves  and  ignited.  After  the  bricks  become  sufficiently  heated  the 
gas  is  turned  off  and  the  blast  air  in  turn  is  pumped  into  ovens.  When 
the  air  has  circulated  through  the  bricks  it  attains  a  heat  sufficient  to 
be  blown  in  at  the  furnace  tuyeres. 

The  spectacular  part  of  blast-furnace  operation  is  the  casting  time 
— the  tune  when  the  molten  metal  is  drawn  from  the  furnace  and  is  cast 
into  molds  in  order  to  harden.  The  pure  iron  is  taken  from  the  bottom 


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MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES  9 

of  the  furnaces  and  belches  forth  through  a  three-inch  "tap-hole," 
lighting  up  the  whole  casting  shed  with  brilliant  glow. 

Near  this  tap-hole  at  a  distance  of  about  45  degrees  is  the  "cinder 
notch"  through  which  the  slag  is  tapped.  The  cinder  notch  is  about 
ten  feet  from  the  furnace  bottom.  The  molten  iron  quickly  flows 
through  a  runner  or  channelway,  into  large  ladle- trucks  (hot  pots), 
and  is  immediately  sent  to  the  open  hearth  to  be  turned  into  steel. 
If  the  blast  furnace  is  not  working  in  conjunction  with  steel  plants 
the  iron  is  cast  into  molds,  and,  when  hardened,  is  the  common  com- 
mercial pig-iron  traded  on  the  iron  and  steel  market. 

With  this  brief  and  general  description  let  us  draw  nearer  to  our 
theme  by  considering  each  specific  type  of  work  carried  on  in  a  blast 
furnace. 

All  the  occupations  may  be  conveniently  classified  in  three  large 
groups: 

First.  Those  occupations  whose  activity  is  centered  in  convey- 
ing the  raw  material  from  the  stock-bins  or  railway 
cars  into  the  furnace. 

Second.  Those  occupations  which  have  to  do  with  the  actual  opera- 
tion of  the  furnace. 

Third.  Those  occupations  concerned  with  the  handling  of  the  iron 
after  it  has  left  the  furnace. 

In  order  to  show  the  changing  conditions  in  these  groups  it  is  neces- 
sary to  subdivide  each  of  these  main  groups  into  its  specialized  occu- 
pations, and  then  in  turn  trace  the  development  of  each  of  these  specific 
occupations. 

GROUP  I.  STOCKING  THE  FURNACE 

This  group  of  occupations  covers  the  work  of  conveying  the  ore 
from  cars  and  ore-bins  to  the  furnace  bell,  and  comprises  unloaders, 
barrow-men,  or  bottom-fillers,  larrymen,  top-fillers,  cagers,  weighers, 
and  sweepers. 

In  the  twenty-five  blast  furnaces  visited,  several  distinct  methods 
in  stocking,  or  filling,  the  furnaces  were  carried  on.  These  different 
processes  were  in  vogue  according  to  the  degree  of  modern  inventions 
introduced. 

Unloaders  and  Barrow  Men 

Unloaders  are  the  pick  and  shovel  men  who  unload  the  coke,  iron- 
ore,  and  limestone  from  the  cars.  Up  until  1894  or  1895  there  were 


10  MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES 

from  16  to  20  unloaders  connected  with  every  blast  furnace.  The  work 
was  very  hard  physically,  and  usually  the  unloading  was  contracted 
out  by  the  furnace  company  to  some  individual  who,  in  turn,  hired 
common  day  labor  to  do  the  work.  In  the  furnaces  visited  at  Steelton, 
Pa.,  this  work  was  seen  to  be  of  a  very  disagreeable  nature,  both  on 
account  of  the  dust  and  exposure  to  the  extremely  cold  weather.  The 
wages  of  unloaders  at  Steelton  in  1890-94  were  12  cents  an  hour,  and 
each  gang  had  a  foreman  receiving  15  cents  an  hour.  The  entire  labor 
force,  including  foreman,  were  negroes  or  foreigners.  At  six  of  the 
furnaces  visited  this  old  method  of  unloading  is  still  in  vogue.  The 
work  is  done  at  present  by  common  labor  at  20  cents  an  hour. 

In  the  more  modern  furnaces  the  raw  materials  are  now  handled 
by  car-dumpers.  The  stock  is  handled  by  having  the  trestles  and 
stock  piles  above  the  bins,  and  having  chutes  to  convey  the  iron-ore, 
coke,  etc.,  into  the  barrows.  This  change  is  clearly  seen  in  comparing 
Photo  I  with  Photo  II.  At  Photo  I  (z)  will  be  noticed  the  old  stock- 
pile method.  At  Photo  II  (b)  the  cars  dump  the  stock  into  bins.  This 
dumping  process  requires  but  one  man,  who  has  general  charge  of  the 
stock.  At  most  furnaces  the  stock  man  was  an  American  of  moderate 
intelligence.  No  one  observing  the  unloading  processes  of  today  would 
deny  that  a  higher  type  of  man  was  doing  the  unloading  compared  with 
the  earlier  days  and  earlier  methods.  One  or  two  men  per  furnace, 
who  show  a  higher  degree  of  intellectual  power,  are  now  doing  the  work 
formerly  carried  on  by  twelve  to  twenty  unskilled  laborers. 

Bottom-fillers,  Weighers  and  Cagers 

Their  work  consists  in  rilling  the  cars  or  cages  located  at  the  bottom 
of  the  furnaces,  weighing  it,  and  then  hoisting  it  up  to  the  furnace  bell. 
From  the  coming  in  of  the  anthracite  blast  furnace  (1851) — that  is, 
the  blast  furnace  using  anthracite  instead  of  charcoal  for  fuel — until 
1895,  bottom-fillers  loaded  large  two-wheel  barrows  by  hand  from  the 
various  stock  piles  of  ore,  limestone  and  coke,  moving  them  when  loaded 
to  the  scales  to  be  weighed,  and  then  placing  them  on  an  elevator  to 
go  to  the  furnace  top.  (See  Photo  I  x)  With  the  ordinary  furnace 
producing  150  to  250  tons  per  24  hours,  12  to  14  bottom-fillers  are 
required  per  turn.  The  wage  paid  is  the  common,  ordinary  labor  wage. 

Note  the  revolution  made  by  machinery!  Where  14  men  are  needed 
in  order  to  load  sufficient  stock  for  making  200  tons  of  pig-iron  per  turn 
under  the  old  method,  the  work  at  improved  furnaces  is  carried  on  by 
two  men  who  load  sufficient  stock  to  make  250  to  300  tons  per  turn. 


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MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES  1 1 

The  three  mechanical  inventions  ushering  in  this  change  are,  first,  the 
skip-hoist,  which  replaces  the  elevator  and  top-fillers;  second,  the  larry- 
car,  which  replaces  the  barrowmen;  and  third,  the  automatic  weigher, 
which  replaces  the  weigher  of  earlier  days. 

The  old  method  of  getting  stock  to  the  bell  was  to  have  the  barrow- 
men  wheel  the  ore,  coke,  etc.,  from  the  bins  to  the  elevator,  then  to 
have  it  lifted  to  the  top  of  the  furnace  where  two  or  three  men  called 
top-fillers  took  the  two-wheeled  barrows  and  dumped  their  contents 
upon  the  bell. 

The  skip-hoist  removes  all  this.  This  apparatus  is  operated  ori  one 
endless  belt  plan.  From  the  ground  to  furnace  top  at  a  45  degree 
slant  is  a  narrow  tramway,  upon  which  runs  the  skip-hoist  cars.  When 
these  cars  reach  the  top  of  the  tramway  they  automatically  dump  their 
stock  upon  the  furnace  bell,  and  immediately  return  to  the  bottom  for 
refilling.  At  the  bottom,  in  lieu  of  having  the  many  bottom-fillers 
haul  the  material  to  the  hoist,  an  electric  car,  called  after  its  inventor 
a  larry-car,  does  all  the  work.  This  car  runs  under  the  bins  containing 
the  stock  and  automatically  weighs  the  material  as  it  drops  from  the 
bins.  The  larry-car  then  runs  by  electric  power  out  over  the  skip- 
hoist  cars,  into  which  it  dumps  the  material  which  is  to  go  to  the  fur- 
nace bell.  (For  picture  of  skip-hoist  see  Photo  II  at  (d).) 

One  has  no  difficulty  in  comparing  the  operators  of  these  mechanical 
devices  with  the  old  bottom-fillers.  Under  the  older  methods  the 
work  is  purely  of  a  heavy  physical  nature,  and,  as  Mr.  Francis  Button, 
Superintendent  of  the  North  Lebanon  furnace,  states,  "no  brains  were 
required  of  these  workers — only  big  bodies  with  lots  of  endurance." 
Today  we  see  that  the  larryman  must  be  about  as  skillful  as  our  trolley 
motorman.  Larrymen  at  several  of  the  newer  furnaces  received  from 
25  cents  to  30  cents  an  hour.  At  most  of  the  furnaces  they  employ 
a  larry  helper,  who  ranks  as  a  common  day  laborer. 

The  Top-fillers 

Top-fillers,  as  their  name  suggests,  work  at  the  top  of  the  furnace. 
(See  Photo  I  (x).)  Their  duty  is  to  take  the  stock  in  the  barrows  from 
the  elevator,  haul  them  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet  to  the  bell,  where 
they  dump  the  contents  into  the  furnace.  They  also  operate  the 
mechanism  which  lowers  the  bell  and  drops  the  charge  into  the  furnace 
proper.  This  latter  operation  permits  the  escape  of  large  quantities 
of  gas,  which  makes  it  both  disagreeable,  and  often  dangerous,  to  the 
workers.  Top-fillers  are  common,  unskilled  laborers,  and  receive 


12  MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES 

ordinary  laboring  wages.  Their  work  demands  tremendous  physical 
endurance.  No  training  or  skill  is  needed.  Usually  4  or  6  top-fillers 
are  needed  for  the  daily  operation.  With  the  use  of  the  skip-hoist  no 
top-fillers  whatsoever  are  needed,  for,  as  before  mentioned,  the 
material  is  dumped  automatically  upon  the  bell.  This  is  a  clear 
instance  where  a  complete  displacal  of  men  has  been  made  by  machines. 

Acrelius  narrates  in  his  " History  of  New  Sweden"1  that  "the  Corn- 
wall charcoal  furnace,  which  started  operation  in  1743,  had  in  all  eight 
individuals  who  put  the  stock  into  the  furnace.  (See  Photo  of  Cornwall 
Furnace.)  The  ore  and  limestone  were  carried  to  the  furnace  top  with 
bags,  and  to  make  the  journey  an  easy  one,  the  furnace  was  lodged  by 
a  mountainside,  or  in  a  ravine,  so  as  to  save  the  furnace  fillers  any 
uphill  journey  with  the  stock." 

When  one  observes  the  modern  method  of  stocking  a  blast  furnace, 
such  as  the  skip-hoist  method  at  No.  5  furnace,  Steelton,  or  at  Sparrows 
Point,  Md.,  with  these  older  methods  cited  by  Acrelius,  or  with  the 
1860  or  1890  wheelbarrow  methods  still  in  vogue  at  the  Miley  furnaces 
at  Lebanon,  one  is  forced  to  admit  that  the  larryman  is  a  higher  type 
of  man,  both  in  the  amount  of  mental  control  and  intelligence  demanded, 
and  in  wages  received.  As  to  physical  requirements,  he  has  but  to 
work  levers  instead  of  hauling  heavy  wheelbarrows. 

The  above  observed  changes  are  corroborated  in  the  United  States 
report  on  the  Conditions  of  Employment  in  the  Iron  and  Steel  Indus- 
try. Quoting  from  the  report:  "In  1895  fourteen  men  were  needed 
per  turn  who  loaded  large  two-wheel  barrow  by  hand  from  the  stock 
piles.  This  stock  was  taken  from  the  top  of  the  cage  (elevator)  by  the 
top-fillers,  who  dump  the  barrows  into  the  open  furnace.  They  had  to 
distribute  the  loads  regularly  around  the  furnace  and  when  they  had  to 
dump  the  stock  on  the  lee  side,  with  a  high  wind  prevailing,  it  was 
exceedingly  dangerous.  ...  In  1910  the  raw  materials  are  unloaded 
by  car  dumpers  into  bins  and  are  brought  by  means  of  electrically 
operated  cars,  which  automatically  weigh  the  materials,  dump  them  into 
the  skip-hoist,  which  automatically  distributes  the  materials.  No  hand 
labor  is  connected  with  the  operation  and  no  men  are  required  at  the 
top  of  the  furnace.  "2 

The  following  table  taken  from  an  older  furnace  and  from  one  of  the 
modern  type  shows  from  a  cost  basis  the  changing  conditions.  The 

^'History  of  New  Sweden,"  by  Israel  Acrelius,  1756. 

'"United  States  Report  on  Conditions  of  Employment  in  the  Iron  and  Steel 
Industry,"  Vol.  Ill,  p.  510  (1913). 


OLD  CORNWALL  FURNACE  AT  CORNWALL,  PA. 

One  of  the  first  blast  furnaces  in  the  United  States.  It  was  built  in  1742  by 
Peter  Grubb,  whose  descendants  to  this  day  have  been  prominent  iro  imasters.  Can- 
non were  cast  at  this  furnace  for  the  Revolutionary  War. 

Toward  the  upper  left  of  photograph  may  be  seen  the  stack  extending  from  the 
furnace. 

To  the  left  is  the  casting  house  containing  pig  beds. 


MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES 


13 


older  furnace  is  the  costs  as  of  November  6th,  1916,  and  of  the  modern 
furnace  for  October  28,  1916.  Both  furnaces  are  typical,  and  as  blast 
furnaces  are  to  a  great  extent  similar  in  general  operation,  this  table 
gives  us  some  general  idea  as  to  the  nature  of  the  replacement. 

COMPARATIVE  LABOR  COSTS  IN  CONVEYING  STOCK  IN  BOTH  OLD  TYPE  AND  MODERN  FURNACE 
ALSO  NUMBER  OF  MEN — WAGE  RATES 


Top-fillers 

Weighers 

Bottom-fillers 

Barrow  Men 

Sweepers 

Larrymen 

Old  type 
furnace 

No. 

Rate 

No. 

Rate 
.22* 

No. 

Rate 

No. 

Rate 

No. 

Rate 

No. 

Rate 
.26* 

6 

None 

.23 

2 
None 

18 
None 

.21 

16 
None 

.20* 

2 
2 

.20 
.20 

None 
2 

Modern 
furnace  

(TABLE  CONTINUED) 


Larry-helper 

Unloaders 

Stock  Foremen 

Total 
Number 

Average 
Rate 

Total 
Labor  Cost 

No. 

Rate 

No. 

Rate 

No. 

Rate 

Old  type 
furnace 

None 
2 

..     6 
2 

.25 
.25 

1 
2 

.24 
.24 

51 
10 

.223 
.233 

$132.36 
33.72 

Modern 
furnace  

.21 

GROUP  II.  OCCUPATIONS  CONNECTED  WITH  ACTUAL  FURNACE 

OPERATION 

In  blast-furnace  operation  we  can  distinguish  as  a  class  those  men 
who  handle  the  molten  metal.  Their  work  is  hot,  dangerous,  and 
demands  constant  vigilance  and  care.  It  is  the  occupations  connected 
with  the  molten  metal,  then,  that  will  be  treated  in  this  second  grouping 
which  arbitrarily  has  been  titled  "actual  furnace  operation." 

This  class  of  workers  comprises  one  blower  or  foreman,  one  furnace 
keeper,  four  keepers'  helpers,  one  monkey  boss,  two  slagmen  or  cinder 
snappers,  and  one  craneman. 

The  Blower 

The  prime  duties  of  a  blower  are  those  of  foreman  and  leading  man 
in  charge  of  the  furnace — superintending  the  routine  work.  The 
position  is  one  which  requires  high  skill  and  ability  to  quickly  arrange 
activities  in  times  of  emergency.  For  in  casting,  the  molten  metal 
acts  at  times  very  oddly  and  mysteriously.  I  was  told  by  Mr.  Frank 
Stewart,  Chief  Timekeeper  at  Steelton,  Pa.,  that  the  income  ranges 
from  $90  to  $100  per  month.  With  the  growth  of  mechanical  appliances 
more  difficult  tasks  fall  upon  the  blower,  but  no  distinct  change  in  type 
is  observed. 


14  MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES 

Furnace  Keeper  and  Helpers 

The  keeper  has  charge  of  getting  the  iron  from  the  furnace,  of  making 
the  sand-runners  leading  to  the  sand  molds,  and  has  charge  of  opening 
and  closing  of  the  "tap-hole."  The  opening  of  the  "tap-hole"  is  a 
very  prolonged,  hot,  and  laborious  job.  Through  three  to  four  feet  of 
hardened  clay,  and  then  through  semi-molten  iron  into  the  molten 
iron,  a  hole  must  be  drilled  before  each  casting.  Very  often  the  opening 
must  be  made  by  driving  large  drills  by  means  of  sledge-hammers.  The 
invention  of  the  oxygen  drill  removes  to  a  great  extent  the  great  amount 
of  physical  effort  sometimes  necessary  to  open  the  tap-hole. 

Worse,  however,  than  opening  the  tap-hole  was  its  closing,  until 
the  coming  in  of  the  mud-gun  in  1895.  This  invention  removed  the 
work  of  two  men  and  greatly  eased  the  work  of  the  keeper.  When  a 
cast  is  about  completed  the  blast  of  the  furnace  blows  out  through  the 
tap-hole  particles  of  hot  iron  and  also  slag  and  hot  gases.  Sparks  of 
iron  fly  helter-skelter,  exposing  the  men  to  great  danger.  Before  the 
shot-gun  was  invented  the  keeper  and  his  helpers  put  balls  of  clay  on 
long  poles  and  stuffed  them  into  the  tap-hole.  This  plugging,  which 
in  many  attempts  failed,  had  to  be  continued  until  the  hole  was  com- 
pletely filled.  The  shot-gun  worked  miracles.  The  keeper  himself 
operates  the  gun.  It  is  swung  into  place  by  a  crane  in  front  of  the 
tap-hole,  and  then  by  steam  or  compressed  air  the  clay  balls  are  shot 
into  the  opening.  In  less  than  five  minutes  the  work  is  completed. 
One  superintendent  states:  "The  mud-gun,  like  the  skip-hoist,  has 
removed  one  more  of  the  dangerous  occupations  in  furnace  operation, 
and,  in  addition,  has  removed  the  need  of  two  workers.  I  remember 
how  the  keepers  accepted  the  mud-gun  with  a  decided  welcome,  for  it 
made  their  jobs  cooler,  easier,  and  much  safer." 

Keepers'  Helpers 

The  keepers'  helpers  make  up  the  runners,  or  channels,  through 
which  the  iron  is  to  flow,  help  the  keeper  to  open  and  close  the  "tap- 
hole,"  watch  the  operation  of  the  tuyeres,  and  work  into  any  other 
jobs  that  emergencies  create  about  the  furnaces.  In  most  of  the  fur- 
naces investigated  the  keepers'  helpers  were  common  laborers  and 
received  laborers'  wages.  At  some  of  the  furnaces  all  the  helpers  were 
on  a  tonnage  basis,  and  in  conjunction  with  the  sand-bed  men  received 
12  cents  a  ton  for  all  pig-iron  cast.  With  the  pig-men  they  comprised 
ten  men  per  turn,  or  twenty  for  a  complete  twenty  four-hour  day.  If 
the  daily  tonnage  was  500  tons,  it  would  mean  $3  a  turn  for  each  worker. 


MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES  IS 

An  invention  of  no  small  benefit  to  the  helpers  is  the  patent  skimmer. 
The  hot  iron  flowing  from  the  furnace  carries  with  it  some  molten  slag. 
This,  floating  on  top  of  the  iron  in  the  runners,  must  be  skimmed  off 
before  the  iron  reaches  the  ladles.  To  do  this  the  older  method  was  to 
build  a  dam  of  sand,  and  then  at  the  bottom  of  this  dam  a  sluiceway 
carried  off  the  pure  iron,  while  from  the  top  the  slag  was  tapped  off  in  a 
different  direction.  If  the  iron  flowed  especially  fast,  the  dam  over- 
flowed its  banks,  which  always  meant  danger  and  decided  inconven- 
ience to  the  workers.  The  patent  skimmer,  which  came  in  about  1898, 
is  an  iron  dam  which  is  placed  in  the  runner  or  runway.  Its  great  bene- 
fit rests  in  the  ability  to  adjust  the  size  of  the  sluiceway  by  the  raising 
or  the  lowering  of  a  lever.  This  invention  saves  the  need  of  one  helper, 
and  lessens  very  materially  the  danger  to  all  at  work  in  the  casting 
process. 

Monkey-Boss  and  Cinder-Snappers 

The  monkey-boss  has  complete  charge  of  the  slag,  a  charge  of  no 
small  magnitude,  as  in  volume  almost  as  much  slag  flows  from  a  furnace 
as  does  iron.  Under  his  direction  are  usually  two  cinder-snappers,  who 
break  up  the  slag  which  happens  to  remain  and  become  cold  in  the 
channelways.  No  marked  changes  were  to  be  noted  in  the  work  con- 
nected with  the  handling  of  slag,  due  to  the  entrace  of  machinery, 
save  that  the  steam  crane  removed  the  heavy  lifting  which  was  for- 
merly necessary. 

In  summing  up  the  occupations  connected  with  the  handling  of 
molten  metal  we  find  the  work  has  become  much  safer  and  also  less 
fatiguing,  due  to  machinery.  Inventions  have  done  away  with  two  or 
three  helpers,  but  have  done  little  which  calls  for  any  increase  of  skill 
or  ability. 

GROUP  III.  OCCUPATION  COVERING  WORK  AFTER  IRON  LEAVES  THE 

FURNACE 

We  now  turn  to  Group  III,  covering  the  occupations  of  pig-bed  men, 
piggery  men,  gas-oven  operatives,  and  power-house  men.  In  this 
group  mechanical  progress  has  wrought  many  changes  in  the  kinds  of 
jobs  and  the  kinds  of  workers  needed  to  fill  them. 

Of  the  25  blast  furnaces  studied,  10  had  special  machines  for  casting 
pig-iron,  called  piggeries,  11  others  used  sand  pig-beds,  while  4  deliv- 
ered the  molten  iron  directly  to  open  hearths.  Formerly  all  the  casting 
was  done  by  use  of  pig-beds. 


16  MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES 

Pig-beds  are  the  molding  beds  for  pig-iron.  On  flat,  level  ground  is 
placed  a  two-foot  layer  of  sand.  In  this  sand  are  several  hundred  molds 
shaped  by  the  pig-men — molds  about  four  feet  long,  six  inches  wide, 
and  six  inches  deep. 

The  men  working  on  pig-beds  rank  very  often  with  the  keepers' 
helpers.  At  the  Steelton  furnaces  negroes  and  Hungarians  made  up 
the  pig-bed  force.  At  the  Lackawanna  Iron  and  Steel  Company  fur- 
nace at  North  Cornwall,  American  whites  with  a  few  Hungarians  com- 
pleted the  force.  The  number  of  pig-men  differs  with  the  casting 
capacity  of  the  furnace — usually  from  6  to  15  pig-men  are  employed. 
Besides  making  the  molds,  these  men  guide  the  flow  of  the  hot  iron 
into  the  molds,  also  gather  up  the  pig  iron  when  cold  and  place  it  upon 
cars.  The  work  calls  for  great  physical  strength  and  endurance.  The 
intellectual  demands  are  nil.  "It's  lift  pig  iron  and  that's  about  all," 
as  the  Chief  Timekeeper  of  the  Cornwall  furnaces,  stated  it.  "Gorilla 
men  are  what  we  need, "  is  the  way  one  employer  put  it.  Wage  rates 
range  from  18  cents  to  21  cents  per  hour.  At  the  Cornwall  furnaces 
18  cents  was  being  paid;  at  North  Lebanon,  20  cents.  In  quite  a  num- 
ber of  instances  the  flat  rate  of  12  cents  a  ton  is  paid  to  the  pig-bed 
force  for  every  ton  of  iron  cast.  That  is,  if  20  pig-bed  men  cast  500 
tons,  they  would  receive  $3.00  each.  At  several  of  the  Steelton  fur- 
naces this  method  of  payment  was  in  vogue.  All  the  workers  on  pig- 
beds  are  young  or  middle-aged;  no  elderly  person  could  endure  the 
strain  demanded  for  this  kind  of  work. 

Piggeries  drive  out  pig-beds  and  pig-men,  and  in  the  driving  demand 
an  entirely  new  coterie  of  workers.  Like  the  skip-hoist  and  larry- 
car,  the  piggery  has  played  havoc  with  the  need  of  brute  force  and 
unskilled  labor  in  blast  furnaces.  In  lieu  of  24  to  60  unskilled  pig-bed- 
men  necessary  for  operating  four  furnaces,  one  piggery  with  7  workers 
handles  the  iron  of  the  same  furnaces  with  ease. 

The  piggery  is  a  mechanical  arrangement  whereby  the  pig-molds, 
which  are  made  of  metal  and  are  attached  to  an  endless  chain,  operate 
on  a  horizontal  plane  with  a  length  of  75  feet  to  100  feet.  This  long 
chain  of  molds  moves  very  slowly.  The  molds  are  filled  with  hot  iron 
at  one  end  and  by  the  time  they  reach  the  other  end  of  the  chainway 
the  pig  iron  has  reached  a  sufficient  coolness  to  be  dropped  into  a  car 
for  shipment. 

The  labor  force  of  the  piggery  at  Lebanon  consisted  of  one  hot-pot 
dumper,  one  flow  regulator,  one  molder,  two  clay-mixers,  two  laborers, 


MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES  17 

and  one  foreman.  At  another  furnace  the  piggery  uses  but  six  men, 
having  but  one  clay-mixer  and  but  one  laborer.  The  foreman  and 
molder  are  skilled  workers,  the  flow-regulator  and  clay-mixers  are  semi- 
skilled; while  the  ladle-dumper  and  the  laborers  are  practically  unskilled. 
Their  wages  average — foreman,  30  cents  per  hour;  clay-mixers,  24  cents; 
flow-regulator,  23  cents;  and  laborers,  20  cents. 

Under  this  third  group  are  also  included  gas-oven  operatives  and 
power-house  men.  In  each  blast  furnace  visited  there  were  found  one 
engineer,  one  oiler,  one  machinist,  one  machinist  helper,  one  hot-oven 
keeper,  and  one  hot-oven  laborer.  The  machinist  and  engineer  are 
skilled  workers,  and  the  oiler  and  machinist  helper,  semi-skilled.  There 
are  few  changes  demanded  in  the  types  of  these  workers  due  to  the 
coming  in  of  machinery.  The  positions  in  this  group  which  have  passed 
through  a  radical  change  are  the  pig-bed  men  and  the  piggery-men. 

Comparative  labor  costs  show,  under  pig-bed  operation,  a  charge 
of  $48.00  for  a  400-ton  cast.  The  pig-casting  machine  to  cast  the  above 
400  tons  of  iron  would  cost  per  day: 

Foreman $  7.20 

Clay-mixers 11.04 

Flow-regulator 5.28 

Labor....  10.08 


TOTAL $33.60 

This  is  a  saving  of  $14.40  per  400- ton  day,  due  to  the  coming  in  of  the 
casting  machine, 

Summing  up  the  following  tabulation  of.  comparative  labor  costs 
taken  from  an  old  type  of  furnace  for  November  6th,  1916,  and  from  a 
furnace  of  the  modern  type  for  October  28th,  1916,  portrays  vividly 
the  change  of  jobs  that  has  taken  place  in  total  operation,  and  also 
the  change  of  labor  supply.  Furnace  A  represents  the  older  type  of 
furnace,  while  B  is  a  modern  one.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  output 
of  the  modern  furnace  is  about  one-third  larger  than  that  of  the  older 
type  furnace.  Also  the  reader  should  observe  that  no  casting  costs 
are  included  in  the  older  type  of  furnace.  This  would  amount  to 
approximately  $36.00  additional  and  also  would  require  12  more  workers. 


18 


MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES 


Job 

Top-fillers  
Weighers 

BLAST  FURNACE  A 

BLAST  FURNACE  B 

November  6,  1916 

OUTPUT  303  TONS 

October  28,  1916 

OUTPUT  409  TONS 

No.  of 
Work- 
ers 

Hours 

Rate 

Amount 

No.  of 
Work- 
ers 

Hours 

Rate 

Amount 

6 
2 
18 
16 
2 
0 
0 
4 

6 
2 
2 
4 
2 
1 
2 
1 
1 
2 
2 
1 
1 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

72 
24 
216 
192 
24 
0 
0 
48 
12 
72 
24 
24 
48 
24 
10 
24 
10 
10 
24 
24 
11 
11 
0 

23 

?t 

20* 
20 

'"20" 
24 
25 

S1 

21 
21 
20 
21* 
20* 
20 
26 
21 
32 
23 

$16.56 
5.40 
45.36 
39.36 
4.80 

9"60 
2.88 
18.00 
5.88 
5.28 
10.48 
5.04 
2.00 
5.16 
2.05 
2.00 
6.24 
5.04 
3.52 
2.53 

(None) 
(None) 
(None) 
(None) 
2 
2 
2 
3 
2 
2 
2 
2 
4 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
1 
1 
2 
2 
4 
2 
4 

SeeL 
Lar 

24 
24 
24 
36 
48 
24 
24 
24 
48 
24 
24 
24 
24 
24 
24 
24 
10 
10 
24 
24 
48 
24 
48 

arrym 
ry  Hel 

21 
26* 
21 
21 
22 
23 
26 
23 
20 
21 
21 
24 
21 
21 
20* 
22 
35 
26 
30 
32 
23 
22 
21 

en  and 
pers 

5.04 
6.36 
5.04 
7.56 
10.56 
5.52 
6.24 
5.52 
9.60 
5.04 
5.04 
5.76 
5.04 
5.04 
6.84 
5.28 
3.50 
2.60 
7.20 
7.68 
11.04 
5.28 
10.08 

Bottom  Fillers  
Barrowmen  

Larrymen  
Larry  Helpers  
Scrap  Loaders  
Stockhouse  Foremen  

Furnace  Keepers  
Helpers,  first  
Helpers,  second  
Cinder  Snapper  
Clay  -mixer  
Hot  Oven  Tender  
Hot  Oven  Labor 

Flue  Dust  Wheeler  

Oilers  
Machinists 

Machinists'Helper  

Piggery  Foremen  

0     .. 

o 

Piggery  Clay  Mixer  
Flow  Regulator  (Flowman)  
Piggery  Labor  

TOTALS 

0     .. 
0     .. 

76 
12 

904 

.2242 

$197.18 
36.00 

51 

722 

.2396 

$146.86 

Casting  Costs  

88 

$233.18 

Adding  in  the  costs  of  casting  in  Furnace  A  (under  the  older  sand- 
bed  method),  we  would  have  a  total  of  88  workers  and  a  total  labor 
cost  of  $233.18.  This  transfer  from  the  older  to  the  newer  methods 
shows  an  elimination  of  39  men  and  a  reduction  of  the  total  daily  labor 
costs  of  $86.32.  And  furthermore,  of  these  39  men  displaced,  we  notice 
them  going  from  the  lower-type  jobs — bottom-fillers,  barrow-men  and 
top-fillers.  This  tendency  toward  higher  types  registers  itself  in  the 
average  rates  of  $.239  for  a  modern  furnace  in  contrast  with  $.224  in 
an  older  type  of  furnace.  In  contrast  to  this  lowering  of  labor  costs 
and  in  the  number  of  employees,  we  find  a  decided  increase  in  output — 
303  tons  to  409  tons. 


MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES  19 

The  above  may  take  clearer  form  in  the  following  chart: 


From  the  twenty-five  blast  furnaces  investigated  the  facts  warrant 
the  following: 

First.  That  the  mechanical  invention  is  coming  into  every  part  of 


20  MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES 

blast-furnace  operation,  as  is  shown  by  some  of  the  principal  inven- 
tions— the   larry-car,   skip-hoist,   mud-gun,   skimmer,   and  piggery. 

I  Second.  There  is  a  diminution  in  the  number  of  workers  required. 
The  average  amount  of  labor  to  operate  under  the  older  method  was 
50  laborers  per  turn,  or  100  per  day.  Where  new  processes  are  in  vogue 
30  men  are  needed  per  turn,  or  about  60  per  day.  In  spite  of  this 
reduction  of  laborers  the  product  has  increased  considerably  in  amount. 
The  older  form  of  furnace  turns  out  from  150  to  200  tons  per  day,  while 
a  modern  furnace  casts  from  400  to  500  tons  per  day.  Some  concep- 
tion of  the  tremendous  increases  in  producive  power,  and  the  low 
increase  of  the  labor  force,  may  be  obtained  by  comparing  the  output 
of  blast  furnaces  in  1869  with  those  of  1909.  The  average  output  per 
man  per  year  in  1869  was  66.5  tons.  In  1909  it  was  569.4  tons,  an 
increase  of  nine  times  as  great  within  40  years.  During  the  same  time 
the  number  of  employees  less  than  doubled,  increasing  from  27,000 
to  43,000.! 

)  Third.  Greater  safety  has  come  with  machinery.  Contrary  pos- 
sibly to  popular  expectation,  machinery  introduced  into  the  blast  fur- 
naces has  made  the  work  much  safer.  According  to  Mr.  Frank  Stewart 
"about  60%  of  the  fatal  accidents  of  a  furnace  occur  to  top-fillers, 
and  the  removal  of  the  top-filler's  position  by  the  skip-hoist  dismisses 
this  kind  of  accident  in  the  future. "  Again,  according  to  Mr.  Button, 
the  skimmer  and  shot-gun  have  made  the  helpers'  work  immeasurably 
safer.  Mr.  Dutton  has  no  figures  to  support  his  statements,  but  he 
surmised  that  the  accidents  to  the  helpers  had  been  reduced  to  half 
their  number,  due  to  the  coming  in  of  these  machine  methods.  The 
very  fact  that  positions  known  as  "the  dangerous  occupations"  no 
longer  exist  shows  definitely  that  machines  have  lessened  accidents. 

Fourth.  A  higher  type  of  worker  is  demanded,  due  to  the  coming 
in  of  mechanical  methods.  More  of  intellectual  skill  and  less  of  physical 
power  is  desired.  Top-fillers,  bottom-fillers,  barrowmen,  and  pig-bed 
men  are  the  men  whose  occupations  call  for  nothing  more  than  brute 
force  and  physical  energy.  Yet  these  are  the  very  positions  that  have 
been  displaced  by  machines.  In  lieu  of  them  we  find  larrymen,  stock 
foremen,  and  piggery  employees — workers  who  do  not  need  the  physical 
prowess  but  of  whom  is  demanded  greater  intellectual  control. 

As  regards  income,  the  bottom-fillers,  barrowmen,  top-fillers  and 
pig-bed-men  are  kept  within  the  range  of  18  cents  to  23  cents  per  hour 

1  Report  on  Iron  and  Steel  for  1909,  p.  208,  Census  Bureau,  August,  25,  1911. 


MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES  21 

in  all  of  the  furnaces  studied.  The  larrymen,  larry-helpers,  and  piggery 
men  range  in  rates  from  21  cents  to  30  cents  per  hour.  The  rates  paid 
the  former  group  average  about  21^2  cents  per  hour,  while  those  of  the 
latter  average  25  cents  per  hour. 

Convincingly  and  definitely,  four  changes  are  found  in  the  fur- 
naces investigated:  First,  mechanical  inventions  are  being  introduced; 
second,  they  call  for  fewer  workers;  third,  the  work  is  safer;  and  fourth, 
they  demand  higher  types  of  workers,  as  shown  by  skill  and  mentality. 

We  now  turn  to  the  industry  so  closely  related  to  the  blast  furnace, 
namely,  the  open  hearth,  and  record  further  the  changes  that  have  taken 
place  in  the  production  of  crude  iron  and  steel  on  account  of  machinery 
and  invention. 

THE  OPEN  HEARTH 

The  open  hearth  produces  steel.  Steel  is  carbonized  iron.  That 
is,  if  we  take  pure  iron  and  add  to  it  a  small  percentage  of  carbon  (say 
one-fourth  of  1%)  the  result  obtained  is  that  hard,  tenacious,  pliable, 
durable  metal  which  we  call  steel.  Pure  iron,  however,  is  seldom 
used  in  making  open  hearth  steel.  Pig  iron,  scrap  iron,  and  scrap 
steel  are  used  instead.  This  stock  has  far  more  than  the  needed  amount 
of  carbon.  Therefore  the  purpose  of  the  open  hearth  becomes  mainly 
one  of  reducing  the  high  percentage  of  carbon.  One  writer  has  described 
the  purpose  of  the  open  hearth  briefly  as  follows:  "The  carbon  in  the 
iron  must  be  reduced  from  about  5%  to  6%  to  less  than  one-half  of  1%. 
Sulphur,  silica,  and  phosphorus  must  be  taken  out  while  other  ingre- 
dients, such  as  manganese,  chromium,  nickel,  and  tungsten,  are  to  be 
added."  In  general  the  purpose  of  the  open  hearth  process  is  to  take 
impurities  from  pig  iron  and  add  certain  ingredients  which  give  the 
beneficial  properties  characteristic  of  steel. 

The  open  hearth  building  is  a  large,  immense  structure  two  or  three 
hundred  feet  wide,  and  sometimes  as  much  as  an  eighth  of  a  mile  in 
length.  The  roof  is  made  very  high,  approximately  sixty  feet,  and  is 
so  arranged  as  to  carry  off  the  heat  and  fumes  that  come  from  the  fur- 
naces. The  open  hearth  building  can  readily  be  distinguished  by  the 
large  number  of  stacks,  which  are  evenly  spaced  and  form  a  regular 
row  along  the  one  side  of  the  plant.  These  stacks  carry  away  smoke 
from  the  gas  producers,  which,  as  we  shall  learn  later,  play  an  important 
part  in  open  hearth  equipment.  Running  lengthwise  through  the  center 
of  the  building  is  a  single  row  of  furnaces,  usually  4  to  20,  or  more,  in 
number. 


22  MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES 

Each  of  these  furnaces  is  a  complete  unit  in  itself.  Many  are  placed 
under  the  same  roof  so  as  to  obtain  the  efficiencies  that  come  with 
large-scale  production.  (See  row  of  furnaces  in  Photo  III.)  Each 
furnace  is  rectangular  in  shape,  constructed  of  fire-brick,  and  averages 
about  30  feet  in  length,  22  to  25  feet  in  width,  and  from  12  to  15  feet 
in  height,  not  considering  the  deep  and  necessary  foundations.  At  one 
end  of  the  furnace  through  a  brick  extension  the  gas  is  introduced  into 
the  furnace.  Where  coal  dust  is  used  for  heating  purposes  in  lieu  of 
gas  there  is  a  large  blow  pipe  through  which  the  ignited  coal  is  blown 
into  the  furnace.  Where  electric  furnaces  are  used  large  induction 
bars  rest  in  the  center  of  the  furnace  from  which  combustion  heat  is 
thrown  off. 

At  the  front  of  the  furnace  are  two  or  three  openings  through  which 
the  charge  is  introduced.  Large  doors  are  lowered  and  raised  by  hy- 
draulic or  electric  power  The  inside  of  the  furnace  is  called  the  hearth. 
Here  is  where  the  iron  is  placed  so  as  to  be  heated  and  cooked  until  it 
has  changed  sufficiently  in  chemical  composition  so  as  to  become  steel. 
The  molten  metal  resting  in  the  hearth  is  called  the  bath.  It  runs  about 
2J^  feet  deep,  with  an  area  of  15  feet  by  20  feet.  At  the  back  of  the 
furnace  is  the  tap,  or  "  runner, "  through  which  the  molten  steel  is 
poured  from  the  furnace.  The  steel  is  first  poured  into  large  kettle 
arrangements,  called  ladles,  in  shape  similar  to  a  deep  type  of  soup 
bowl.  They  are  from  7  to  10  feet  deep,  and  range  in  width  from  6  to 
12  feet  in  diameter.  They  carry  as  high  as  35  tons  of  molten  metal. 
Electric  cranes  carry  these  ladles,  or  "hot-pots,"  as  they  are  termed, 
over  the  tops  of  vertical  molds.  The  hot-pot  is  tapped  through  a  small 
hole  in  its  bottom,  and  the  molds  are  soon  filled  with  the  molten  steel. 
(See  Photo  IV.) 

When  the  steel  has  hardened  these  molds  are  stripped  off  and  we 
have  remaining  a  piece  of  steel  about  12  inches  square  and  from  5  to 
8  feet  in  length.  This  is  called  an  ingot. 

Along  the  outside  of  the  open  hearth  building  one  sees  many  cylin- 
drical ovens  20  to  25  feet  in  height  and  about  15  feet  in  diameter.  These 
are  gas  producers.  In  them  we  have  soft  bituminous  coal  introduced 
from  which  gas  is  extracted.  This  gas  is  then  channeled  into  the  fur- 
naces in  order  to  heat  the  bath  to  those  temperatures  whereby  desired 
chemical  reactions  take  place. 

THE  OPEN  HEARTH  OCCUPATIONS. 
In  the  actual  operation  of  the  open  hearth  there  are  four  distinct 


PHOTO  IV 

Filling  molds  from  ladle.    Loops  on  top  of  molds  used  for  "stripper"  to  get  a  firm  grip. 


MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES  23 

working  levels  of  labor  operations. 

First.      The  Charging  Floor.    This  is  the  level  from  which  the 
materials  are  put  into  the  furnace,  and  is  about  30  feet 
from  the  ground. 
Second.    The  Ladleman's  Platform.    This  is  the  pourer's  level,  and 

is  about  12  feet  from  the  ground. 
Third.      The  Ground  or  Pit  Level.    Here  are  placed  the  molds  in 

order  to  be  filled. 

Fourth.    The  Electric  Cranes — which  operate  overhead. 
In  addition  to  these  four  levels  we  find  much  miscellaneous  work, 
as,  for  instance,   skull-cracking,   relining  ladles,   cleaning  brick,   etc. 
Let  us  now  consider  the  labor  operations  performed  in  each  of  these 
groupings,  following  closely  those  jobs  where  marked  changes  have  been 
made  due  to  the  coming  in  of  machinery. 

THE  CHARGING  LEVEL 

The  labor  positions  on  the  charging  level  are  the  melter,  first  and 
second  helper,  charger,  pull-way  boys,  and  gas-men,  all  of  whom  in 
turn  are  interested  in  getting  stock  and  fuel  into  the  hearth  and  in  the 
actual  operation  of  the  furnace.  Machinery  has  done  little  to  change 
the  fundamental  demands  made  of  the  melter  or  his  helpers,  either  as  to 
numbers  or  qualifications;  also  as  regards  pull-up  boys,  although  their 
work  has  been  made  somewhat  easier  due  to  improved  power  machinery. 

The  great  labor  changes  are  in  the  new  conditions  brought  about 
by  the  charging  machine  and  the  mechanical  methods  of  operating 
gas  producers. 

The  charging  of  the  furnace  has  had  such  a  marked  influence  on 
output  and  on  labor  conditions  that  it  will  in  no  way  be  amiss  to  trace 
in  some  detail  the  different  methods  used.  Possibly  this  machine  has 
worked  the  greatest  labor  change  of  all  mechanical  appliance  put  into 
open  hearth  operation.  The  early  method  of  stocking  the  furnace  was 
by  hand.  This  method  consisted  in  taking  a  15  foot  bar  of  iron  flattened 
at  one  end  like  a  pancake  turner.  Upon  the  flat  end  of  this  bar  the 
workers  placed  the  iron,  and  then  shoved  it  into  !Re  furnace.  The  bar, 
or  "peel,"  as  it  was  termed,  would  then  be  withdrawn  for  another 
filling. 

According  to  Mr.  Scott  Greenwalt,  former  Superintendent  of 
Open  Hearths  at  Midland  Steel  Company,  now  with  the  Bethlehem 
Steel  Company,  "  this  work  was  the  hardest  and  most  strenuous  of  the 


24  MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES 

whole  steel  industry.  The  heavy  lifting  of  iron,  the  heat,  glare  and 
fumes  from  the  open  furnace,  combined  to  make  the  work  most  exhaus- 
ing.  Negroes  and  Irish  were  employed  almost  entirely.  All  wore 
heavy  red  flannel  shirts  to  protect  themselves  from  the  excessive  heat, 
and  if  it  were  not  for  the  rest  periods  that  occurred  between  the  charging 
times,  no  human  being  could  have  endured  the  work  for  a  continuous 
day."  One  worker  put  in  in  these  no  uncertain  terms:  "It  was  work- 
ing aside  of  hell  ahead  of  time." 

Six  to  eight  men  were  required  to  fill  a  small  25-ton  furnace  by  the 
peel  method.  To  operate  six  25-ton  furnaces  about  40  unskilled  workers 
were  needed. 

The  peel  method,  though  still  found  in  Europe,  has  almost  entirely 
gone  out  of  use  in  America.  In  1895  it  began  to  be  replaced  by  the 
"dumper-method."  This  method  consists  of  having  the  iron  hauled 
to  the  front  of  the  furnace  in  iron  bins.  A  crane  picks  up  the  bins  one 
at  a  time  and  dumps  them  into  the  furnace.  Usually  in  this  process  of 
filling  the  furnace  is  tilted,  thus  making  for  easy  access  of  material. 
This  dumper  method  was  short-lived,  for  soon  after  its  invention  the 
charging  machine  came  into  operation. 

This  charging  machine  revolutionized  the  industry.  One  skilled 
employee  operating  the  modern  charging  machine  can  stock  six  to 
eight  furnaces  which  under  the  peel  method  would  have  required  40 
peel  handlers.  Besides,  the  furnaces  are  now  so  large  that  it  is  doubtful 
if  peel  men  should  distribute  the  iron  sufficiently  well  to  do  good  heating. 

Greater  output  was  also  made  possible.  Mr.  James  Gledhill, 
Assistant  Superintendent  of  the  American  Iron  and  Steel  Manufacturing 
Company,  stated,  "The  sole  factor  accounting  for  the  increased  output 
was  the  charging  machine. " 

The  charging  machine  consists  of  a  broad  electrically  propelled 
platform  upon  which  sits  the  operator.  This  platform  has  projecting 
in  front  of  it  a  long  steel  arm  like  a  battering  ram.  (See  Photo  VI 
and  III.)  The  end  of  this  ram  is  made  to  fit  into  steel  boxes  holding 
several  tons  of  iron.  The  ram  picks  up  the  steel  box  of  stock,  shoves 
it  into  the  hearth,  dumps  it,  and  then  withdraws  from  the  furnace  for  a 
second  box.  The  filled  boxes  are  brought  in  on  narrow  gage  cars  which 
run  on  tracks  parallel  to  the  furnaces.  (See  Photo  VI  and  III.)  The 
charging  machine  is  also  on  wheels  and  is  capable  of  operation  at  all 
the  furnaces. 

Peel  chargers  at  Steelton  received  13  cents  an  hour;  at  Harrisburg 
they  received  15  cents  an  hour.  Everywhere  the  common  labor  wage 


MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES 


25 


was  usually  paid.  At  one  plant  today  27J^  cents  per  hour  is  paid  for 
the  charger;  at  another  28 J^  cents  is  paid.  At  two  other  plants  30 
cents  per  hour  was  received. 

The  statement  of  an  official  at  Lebanon  tells  of  the  changing  type. 
We  were  standing  before  the  charging  machine  watching  it  filling  the 
furnace  with  iron,  and  when  his  attention  was  brought  to  the  matter  of 
labor  types  he  pointed  to  the  small  stature  and  light  weight  of  the  opera- 
tor. "There  is  your  answer,"  he  stated,  "no  muscle,  no  physical 
resistance;  just  sufficient  skill  and  cleverness  to  operate  six  levers. 
Imagine  such  a  little  shrimp  trying  to  handle  a  peel." 

One  superintendent  has  worked  out  a  comparison  of  labor  costs, 
also  the  approximate  output  under  the  peel  and  under  the  charging 
machine  methods.  He  has  included  the  necessary  locomotive  shifting 
crew  with  the  charging  costs  under  modern  conditions.  It  should  be 
mentioned  that  these  figures  regarding  the  peel  are  given  only  as  an 
approximation,  but  as  far  as  it  can  be  discerned  they  are  a  fair  por- 
trayal of  the  conditions  as  they  existed. 


Method 

No.  of  Men 

Rate  of  Wages 

Total  Wages 

Output 

Peel. 

36 

Common  labor 
Then  14c  now  20c 

$7200 

90  Tons 

Charging  machine 
and  tracks 

5 

27c 

1350 

600  Tons 

26  MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES 

Charting  these  figures  we  have: 


Where  pig  iron  is  brought  direct  from  the  blast  furnace  to  the  open 
hearth  in  a  molton  state,  the  small  ladles  dump  the  iron  into  a  huge 
50-ton  ladle  called  a  " mixer."  This  huge  ladle,  handled  by  an  elec- 
tric crane,  then  pours  the  iron  into  the  furnace.  Photo  VII  shows  this 
method  at  work.  Note  the  absence  of  workingmen  on  the  charging 
floor.  Only  one  skilled  man  operating  the  crane  is  necessary. 


PHOTO  VII 

Charging  floor  where  the  hot  metal  from  the  "mixer"  is  being  charged  into  the  furnice.     Note  absence  of  workers. 


The  pit  side  of  open  hearth.     Steps  lead  up  to  pourer's  or  ladleman's  level.     Row  of  molds  being  filled  from 
ladle.    The  row  of  furnaces  is  to  the  right. 


MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES  27 

GAS  PRODUCER  OPERATION 

Gas  production  plays  an  important  place  in  the  operation  of  the 
open  hearth.  The  combustion  of  gas  in  the  hearth  gives  the  required 
heat  for  certain  necessary  chemical  reactions  in  the  bath. 

To  produce  gas,  soft  coal  is  burned  in  a  thick,  heavy  fire,  and  the 
gases  given  off  are  collected.  This  gas  is  purified  and  channeled  to  the 
furnaces,  where  it  becomes  ignited.  The  soft  coal  clinkers,  and  there- 
fore demands  constant  poking  with  long  bars  to  keep  a  fire  going. 
If  8  or  10  gas  producers  were  used  at  a  plant,  18  to  20  laborers  were 
necessary  to  carry  on  this  work.  In  addition  they  attended  to  the 
filling  of  the  producers. 

A  mechanical  change  which  replaced  this  poking  method  was  the 
Frazer  Talbot  and  other  forms  of  mechanical  producers.  Steel  arms 
inside  the  producer  were  made  to  move  up  and  down,  thus  preventing 
clinkers.  This  has  cut  the  needed  labor  in  operating  gas  producers 
considerably.  The  Assistant  Superintendent  at  Steelton  claims  that 
only  about  a  third  the  number  of  men  are  needed.  Mr.  Greenwalt,  at 
Lebanon,  claimed  that  "a  great  reduction  had  taken  place — possibly 
75%  less  than  what  was  formerly  needed." 

Gas  men  receive  18  cents  to  22  cents  per  hour.  This  mechanical 
change  means  a  reduction  of  the  amount  of  unskilled  labor  with  no  change 
in  skill  required. 

As  regards  the  charging  level,  we  see  the  great  changes  brought  in 
were  by  the  charging  machine,  the  mechanical  appliances  in  gas  pro- 
ducing, and  the  "mixer."  Unskilled  labor  has  been  displaced  by 
machinery;  skilled  labor  has  been  taken  on. 

THE  SECOND  LEVEL — THE  POURING  LEVEL 

The  charging  and  gas  producing  take  place  on  one  side  of  the  long 
row  of  furnaces.  The  pouring,  casting,  pit  work  and  handling  of  molds 
and  slag  occur  on  the  opposite  side.  On  a  platform  about  ten  feet 
from  the  ground  several  operations  are  found  which  are  connected  with 
getting  the  metal  from  the  hearth  into  the  molds.  (See  Photo  V  (x).) 
These  operations  are  pourer  or  ladleman,  nozzle-setter,  and  nozzle- 
setter  helpers.  The  pourer  has  charge  of  the  flow  from  the  hearth  into 
the  ladles.  He  regulates  the  flow  and  takes  care  of  the  hot  slag.  The 
nozzle-setter  has  control  of  the  tapping  from  the  ladles  into  the  molds. 
To  aid  him  he  has  from  four  to  as  high  as  eighteen  or  twenty  men.  The 
platform  upon  which  these  men  work  is  on  a  level  with  the  tops  of  the 


MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES 

molds.  At  pouring  time  the  men  on  the  ladleman's  platform  must  work 
with  speed,  also  with  great  care.  Handling  metal  at  liquid  heat  is 
dangerous  under  any  circumstances. 

The  shift  from  the  stationary  ram  cranes,  which  were  situated  at 
every  furnace  to  the  overhead  traveling  cranes,  has  reduced  the  number 
of  helpers. 

Opportunity  was  given  to  see  the  pouring  under  both  the  stationary- 
crane  method  and  under  the  traveling  cranes.  At  Pencoyd  each  furnace 
has  its  stationary  crane.  This  crane  has  attached  at  the  end  of  a  long 
extending  arm  a  ladle.  The  ladle  is  filled  at  the  furnace,  and  then  the 
long  arm  carries  it  out  over  the  tops  of  the  molds.  If  many  furnaces 
are  ripe  for  the  tapping  a  large  labor  force  is  required.  While  two 
furnaces  were  being  tapped  at  Pencoyd,  37  men  were  counted  at  work 
in  the  pouring  process.  At  Steelton,  where  the  most  recent  types  of 
open  hearths  are  being  operated,  the  large  ladle  goes  to  the  "ripe"  fur- 
nace, receives  the  hot  steel,  and  then  travels  to  the  molds  where  the 
ingots  are  made. 

Only  12  men  were  engaged  in  the  pouring  work  at  Steelton.  This 
change  of  crane  operation  was  the  only  mechanical  or  labor  change 
on  the  pouring  level. 

THE  GROUND  LEVEL 

Possibly  the  greatest  change  in  the  open  hearth  as  regards  the  wel- 
fare and  safety  of  the  laborers  has  occurred  in  connection  with  the  sur- 
roundings of  the  pit  men.  Pit  men  are  those  who  tend  to  an  endless 
amount  of  work  in  the  way  of  preparing  the  molds  for  casting  and  in 
cleaning  up  after  the  casting,  or  pouring,  has  taken  place.  Several 
mechanical  factors  have  come  in  which  have  had  a  decided  effect  in 
changing  the  labor  conditions  for  pit  men.  They  are: — 

First.  The  coming  in  of  traveling  cranes.  These  cranes  are  used 
in  cleaning-up  work.  They  have  reduced  the  necessary  labor  force  of 
pit-men  almost  one-half.  No  barrowmen  are  needed  as  the  crane  car- 
ries the  dirt  and  scrap  to  the  cars  in  steel  boxes. 

Second.  The  coming  in  of  the  thimble  eliminated  a  great  deal  of 
the  slag  work.  The  thimble  is  a  hot-pot,  or  ladle,  shaped  like  a  cone 
standing  on  its  apex.  It  is  very  broad  at  the  top  (12  feet),  and  is  kept 
near  the  "runner"  of  the  hearth  so  as  to  catch  the  overflow  of  steel 
and  slag.  (See  Photo  VIII)  The  cranes  also  drain  the  dregs  of  the 
hot-pots  into  the  thimble.  When  full,  the  thimble  is  carried  out  by 


PHOTO  VIII 

Pit  side  of  furnace.     Steel  being  tapped  from  hearth.     Note 
run  from  top  of  huge  ladle. 


:the  thimble" — to  catch  the  slag  which  will  soon 


MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES  29 

crane  and  then  by  locomotive.  Formerly  the  overflow  was  allowed  to 
run  on  the  ground,  and  then  after  cooling  was  broken  up  by  laborers 
and  treated  as  scrap. 

Third.  The  coming  in  of  molds  placed  upon  cars.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  describe  in  detail  the  difference  in  handling  the  molds  so  as  we 
may  see  clearly  the  benefits. 

Under  the  old  method  the  steel  was  poured  from  the  stationary 
crane  into  molds  arranged  in  two  or  three  semi-circular  rows  in  a  pit 
near  the  ladle  crane.  Around  the  base  of  these  molds  worked  the 
pit  men.  When  the  steel  had  hardened  sufficiently  the  overhead  crane, 
with  its  chains  fastened  to  the  lugs  of  the  mold,  stripped  the  mold  from 
the  ingot.  If  the  mold  stuck  the  pitman  took  heavy  sledges  and  loosened 
them.  Work  among  these  hot  molds  was  extremely  dangerous.  One 
superintendent  claimed  that  more  open  hearth  accidents  had  occurred 
to  pitmen  than  to  all  other  employees.  All  of  us  remember  the  hor- 
rible accident  at  one  steel  plant  where  a  dropping  of  a  ladle  buried  three 
pitmen  in  molten  metal. 

At  Harrisburg,  at  Steelton,  at  Lebanon,  in  fact  in  most  plants, 
the  molds  are  now  placed  on  cars  and  as  filled  are  drawn  away  by  loco- 
motives. (See  Photo  IV  and  V.) 

Fourth.  The  mechanical  stripper.  This  machine  has  removed 
both  men  and  danger  from  the  pit.  In  lieu  of  having  pitmen  fasten 
the  crane  chains  to  the  molds,  so  as  to  strip  ingots,  this  gigantic  machine 
35  feet  in  height  drops  its  huge  hand  over  the  mold  and  tightly  grasps  it. 
As  the  mold  is  being  lifted  by  this  electric  power  machine  a  plunger 
forces  the  ingot  from  the  mold.  Where  8  or  10  pitmen  were  constantly 
at  work  helping  a  crane  to  do  stripping  the  mechanical  stripper  operates 
with  only  one  employee.  The  operator  of  the  stripper  is  treated  on 
the  same  basis  as  a  craneman,  receives  the  same  wages,  and  has  the 
same  ranking.  Here  is  another  instance  where  physical  power  has  been 
replaced  by  mental  power.  Skill  to  operate  levers,  not  muscles  to  swing 
sledges. 

On  the  ground  level  the  great  change  observed  is  the  removal  of 
the  need  of  much  " common  labor;"  also  a  decided  betterment  as  re- 
gards safety. 

CRANEMEN'S  LEVEL 

Cranes  have  been  marked  influence  in  removing  common,  unskilled 
labor  from  the  steel  mills.  In  the  handling  of  brick,  slag,  stock,  etc., 
the  crane  has  replaced  barrow  and  barrowmen.  "What  fifteen  or 


30  MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES 

twenty  men  could  haul  away  in  a  day  by  means  of  barrows  is  carried 
in  two  or  three  trips  with  the  crane."  The  important  thing  to  note  in 
the  coming  in  of  cranes,  especially  the  electric  cranes,  is  the  shift  in 
type  of  labor  needed.  In  every  mill  investigated  the  craneman,  save 
for  exceptional  instances,  were  native  whites  receiving  8  cents  to  10 
cents  per  hour  more  than  common  labor.  The  great  demands  made 
upon  cranemen  in  open  hearth  work  is  not  physical  power,  but  skill 
and  vigilance.  The  mismovement  of  a  lever  might  easily  upset  tons 
of  metal,  topple  ingots,  or  crush  furnaces.  Cranemen  therefore  must 
use  mental  control  constantly  or  must  witness  costly  mistakes.  Error 
by  a  craneman  is  always  costly.  Dump  a  wheelbarrow,  and'  who 
cares?  Have  a  crane  make  a  false  move  and  no  end  of  trouble  is  likely 
to  ensue. 

OUTSIDE  LABOR 

When  the  ladles  are  emptied  some  of  the  steel  is  certain  to  remain 
and  harden.  This  is  dumped  from  the  ladle,  and,  due  to  its  round 
shape,  takes  the  name  of  a  skull.  Generally  this  is  pure  steel,  and 
therefore  is  valuable  for  remelting.  An  important  operation  found  at 
all  open  hearths  is  the  breaking  of  skulls  so  as  to  render  them  small 
enough  to  enter  the  furnace  doors. 

When  two  open-hearth  operators  went  to  Midland  Steel  Company  as 
superintendents  of  the  rolling  mills  and  open  hearths,  the  first  demand 
they  made  in  the  way  of  machinery  was  for  a  magnetic-drop-ball  appara- 
tus, and  for  a  Hayward  bucket,  both  to  be  used  entirely  for  cracking 
skulls  and  loading  them  on  cars  to  be  taken  to  the  charging  floor.  One 
of  these  men  stated  that  "twenty  to  twenty-five  'Hunkies'  were  used 
to  break  up  these  skulls,  costing  $30  to  $35  a  day  in  wages.  With  the 
magnet  and  ball  all  the  steel  skulls  were  broken  and  collected  with  but 
four  workers,  two  skilled  men  to  operate  the  machinery,  and  two  laborers 
for  helping. " 

Figures  approximating  this  change  were  given  as  follows: 


Number  of  Men 

Total  Daily  Wages 

Hourly  Rate 

Hand  or  sledge  breaking 

20 

$36.00 

.18 

Drop  ball  and  bucket  

4 

9.10 

•22% 

The  drop-ball  is  operated  by  having  a  metal  plate  attached  to  an 
overhead  crane,  the  plate  being  so  arranged  that  it  can  be  powerfully 


MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES  31 

magnetized.  This  plate  then  picks  up  a  heavy  iron  ball  30  inches  or  so  in 
diameter,  and  weighing  over  a  ton.  This  ball  is  lifted  to  a  height  of 
25  feet  directly  over  a  skull.  Then  the  magnet  is  broken.  With  a 
thud  the  skull  is  broken  into  six  or  eight  pieces  sufficiently  small  to  enter 
the  furnace  door.  The  Hayward  buckets  are  a  mechanical  shovel 
with  large  protruding  teeth.  This  operates  on  a  revolving  electric 
crane,  and  scoops  up  the  steel  pieces  and  places  them  on  cars. 

Around  every  open  hearth  repairs  to  furnaces  are  in  progress.  Many 
workers  such  as  bricklayers,  bricklayers'  helpers,  and  common  labor  are 
constantly  at  work.  The  laborers  clean  out  furnaces,  clean  brick,  etc., 
while  the  bricklayers,  with  their  helpers,  construct  new  furnaces.  It 
was  impossible  to  get  labor  data  on  these  employees,  first,  because  of 
the  great  variety  and  type  of  work  which  they  were  doing.  Second 
their  employment  is  usually  not  under  the  open  hearth  control,  but 
the  workers  come  from  the  bricklaying  and  other  departments. 

In  summarizing  the  labor  changes  characteristic  of  the  open  hearth 
in  general,  one  finds  a  large  falling  off  in  the  number  of  unskilled  labor 
required,  and  an  increased  demand  for  skilled  or  semi-skilled  workers. 
Mental  control  is  demanded  in  lieu  of  physical  power. 

Unfortunately,  comparative  total  income  it  is  impossible  to  obtain 
in  open-hearth  operation.  Men  in  many  occupations  are  paid  on  a 
tonnage  basis,  others,  part  tonnage  and  part  time,  while  still  other 
groups  work  entirely  on  a  time  schedule. 

A  comparison  is  possible  as  regards  the  total  amount  of  labor  re- 
quired to  operate  an  old  and  a  modern  furnace.  One  employer  gave 
the  following  estimate  from  his  experience: 


32 


MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES 


LABOR  FORCE  IN  MODERN  AND  OLDER  TYPES  OF  OPEN  HEARTHS 

(Necessary  Labor  Supply  to  Operate  Four  50-Ton  Furnaces  24  Hours;  Two  12-Hour 

Shifts) 


Occupation 

Older  Open 
Hearth 

Modern  Open 
Hearth 

Melters 

2 

2 

Helpers  (First) 

4 

4 

Helpers  (Second)                 

8 

8 

LacQemen                

2 

2 

Nozzle-setter  

2 

2 

Nozzle-setter  helpers 

6 

2 

Door  boys                                                   

8 

6 

Stackers,  gasmen  and  chargers     

38 

10 

Pitmen                        

32 

14 

Stripping  ingots  

14 

4 

Skull  cracking  

26 

4 

TOTAL                              

142 

58 

If  we  analyze  the  table  carefully  with  a  view  to  dividing  the  labor 
into  skilled  and  unskilled,  or,  better  than  that,  work  which  predomi- 
nantly is  physical  and  that  which  in  the  main  is  mental,  the  above 
figures  would  give : 


LABOR   EFFORT  ONE  DAY'S  OPERATION 


Type  of  Work 

Old 

New 

Mental  control,  (Skilled 
labor) 

10 

28 

Physical  power,  (Unskilled 
labor)      

132 

30 

TOTAL 

142 

58 

x 

MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES 


33 


The  following  chart  will  perhaps  illustrate  this  important  change 
in  a  more  impressive  way: 


1   /o    \ 


<6x/a//eS      Mi/te/ 


SA/'ffeS 

/Vk*y  O-Sfezrrf. 


34  MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES 

MACHINERY  AND  MAN 

Having  passed  through  these  detailed  operations  covering  the  blast 
furnace  and  open  hearth,  let  us  turn  to  the  larger  aspect  of  these  chang- 
ing men  and  mamines.  There  were  seen  new  methods,  new  machinery, 
and  new  types  of  labor  coming  in,  and  old  methods,  old  machinery, 
and  old  types  thrown  into  the  discard.  The  two  industries  are  in 
constant  flux,  and  everywhere,  on  all  sides,  this  replacing  process  con- 
tinues. 

Observations  and  data  collected  warrant, — 

First.  The  blast  furnace  and  open  hearth  during  the  last  forty 
years  have  introduced  an  increasing  amount  of  mechanical  processes. 
Within  this  time  have  developed  the  skip-hoist,  larry-car,  pig-casting 
machine,  charging  machine,  stripper,  and  skull-cracker — machinery 
of  tremendous  size,  complexity,  and  capacity,  machinery  whose  opera- 
tion in  every  single  instance  has  displaced  operations  that  were  carried 
on  by  hand.  Colossal  machines  operated  by  skilled  minds  have  dis- 
placed the  unskilled  hands  who  wheeled  the  barrow,  slung  the  sledge, 
or  heaved  the  heavy  peel. 

Second.  Fewer  workers  are  required.  One  visiting  a  modern 
open-hearth  or  blast  furnace  is  not  surprised  by  the  great  number  of 
workers,  but  rather  on  account  of  the  scarceness  of  them.  As  one 
visitor  to  a  full-running  open  hearth  expressed  it,  "Don't  any  people 
work  in  this  factory?  " 

In  other  words,  the  mechanical  inventions  introduced  required  a 
far  less  amount  of  labor  for  carrying  on  operations.  The  larryman  re- 
moves the  need  of  twenty  barrowmen;  the  charger  has  displaced  the 
thirty  or  thirty-five  peel  handlers,  and  so  on.  This  does  not  mean  that 
fewer  men  are  working  in  open  hearths  and  blast  furnaces,  taking  the 
nation  as  a  whole.  These  industries  have  grown,  and  are  continuing 
to  grow,  to  such  extent  that  an  increasing  number  of  men  is  being 
needed.1  It  indicates  rather  a  fewer  number  of  men  necessary  to  carry 
^on  specific  operations. 

Third.  The  work  is  safer.  The  popular  notion  that  greater  machin- 
ery means  greater  danger  to  workers  finds  no  approval  in  fact  when 
the  blast-furnace  and  open-hearth  industries  are  considered.  As  was 

1  In  blast  furnaces  in  1869,  27,500  workers  were  employed,  while  in  1909  43,000 
were  working.  Tonnage  during  this  same  period  increased  from  1,800,000  tons  to 
25,600,000  tons.  This  same  trend  is  found  in  open  hearths.  Thirteenth  Census 
of  U.  S.,  Vol.  X,  page  208. 


MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES  35 

seen  in  the  blast  furnaces,  so  also  in  open  hearths,  not  more,  but  fewer 
accidents  occur  with  the  coming  in  of  mechanical  appliances.  Influences 
have  been  at  work  bringing  in  this  beneficial  result.  The  machines 
have  displaced  dangerous  occupations,  as,  for  instance,  the  skip-hoist 
removing  the  top-fillers,  and  the  stripper  doing  away  with  the  need  of 
pitmen. 

One  superintendent  of  open  hearths  claimed  that  the  coming  in  of 
mechanical  methods  has  reduced  accidents  to  pitmen  at  least  75%.  In 
this  employer's  plant  during  one  year  when  the  old  pit  methods  were 
in  vogue,  68  men  were  injured,  of  which  14  proved  fatal.  In  1915 
in  the  modern  plant,  22  injuries  were  recorded,  and  only  one  fatal. 

In  the  crude  iron  and  steel  industries  much  of  the  dangerous  work 
has  been  done  away  with  simply  because  the  workers  in  the  dangerous 
occupations  are  no  more  needed.  Machinery  now  does  their  work. 

The  fourth  conclusion,  and  one  of  no  small  importance,  is  the  higher 

type  of  man  that  comes. hand  in  hand  with  machinery.     The  results  in 

both  industries,  and  especially  in  the  open  hearth,  show  without  ques- 

!   tion  that  a  greater  mentality  and  a  more  skilled  worker  is  needed 

The  change  observed  is  mental  control  removing  physical  effort, 
a  general  shift  from  muscular  power  to  intellectual  skill.  The  strong-of- 
body  is  no  more  needed.  A  keen,  watchful,  and  alert  mental  supremacy 
is  being  demanded.  Seeing  this  change  from  physcial  to  mental  effort, 
does  it  justify  the  conclusion  that  the  mental  type  is  the  higher?  Judg- 
ing by  wages  received  the  answer  is  in  the  affirmative!  Larrymen,  pig- 
machine  men,  chargers,  and  cranemen  all  receive  a  larger  income  than 
unskilled  labor.  However,  an  income  test  at  best  is  objectionable. 
It  may  mean  simply  that  the  market  conditions  are  such  that  one  obtains 
a  higher  wage  on  account  of  difference  in  supply. 

A  better  proof  than  this  is  possible.  Go  back  a  few  centuries. 
Compare  the  physical  stature  of  the  earlier  with  the  modern  man,  and 
if  anything,  the  1917  fellow  comparatively  has  lost  in  weight.  Wherein 
has  been  progress  and  growth?  Answer, — Control  over  surroundings 
through  inventive  genius  and  intellectual  skill.  If  the  growth  of  civiliza- 
tion connotes  anything,  it  connotes  a  growth  in  mental  prowess.  And 
this  being  true,  the  trend  observed  in  blast  furnace  and  open  hearth  is 
in  keeping  with  this  general  progress.  A  step  from  heavy,  cumbersome, 
physical  labor  to  alert,  keen,  and  ever-awake  mental  activity  represents 
a  change  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  man,  just  as  our  civilization  with  its 


^36  MACHINERY  IN  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES 

intellectual  growth  has  advanced  above  the  Fiji  Islander,  who  still 
depends  on  physical  strength. 

But  observe  the  "higher  type"  from  a  far  more  practical  point 
of  view,  namely,  the  increased  cost  of  errors  that  comes  with  greater 
machines.  In  the  industries  studied  the  costliness  of  mistakes  made  by 
workers  varies  hi  direct  ratio  to  the  increase  in  mechanical  methods. 

As  an  assistant  superintendent  claimed:  "An  error  in  judgment  on 
the  part  of  the  operator  of  a  charging  machine  may  so  injure  either  the 
machine  or  furnace  that  as  much  as  a  week  may  be  required  to  make 
repairs."  He  was  more  emphatic  regarding  craneman.  "They  must 
be  exceedingly  careful,  working  as  they  do  with  molten  metal  over  the 
heads  of  workers  and  near  molds  that  topple  with  a  slight  jar."  As 
was  stated  before,  "Upset  a  wheelbarrow,  and  who  cares?"  Topple  a 
ladle  into  the  pit-floor,  and  no  end  of  cost  and  trouble  results. 

If  no  other  proof  were  found  than  this  growing  costliness  of  error 
which  conies  with  machinery,  it  would  be  sufficient  to  show  the  need 
of  a  more  careful  intellectual  worker. 

Facts  bear  out  Dr.  Carrol  D.  Wright  when  he  claims  that  muddled 
brains  are  in  danger  when  working  near  complex  machines.  Observe 
also  that  complex  machines  are  in  danger  when  muddled  brains  operate 
them.  A  more  complex  machine,  and  a  higher  type  of  labor  becomes 
the  natural  adjustment. 

Machinery  is  becoming  more  complex  and  more  gigantic  in  influence; 
therefore  the  more  responsible  the  labor  effort  required  in  its  operation. 
And  for  labor  to  meet  the  needs  of  new  machinery  the  call  is  for  stronger 
minds,  not  stronger  muscles — for  mental  superiority,  not  for  physical 
prowess. 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


UD,,S9M* 

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